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A selection of uncooked red meat and poultry Meat is that is eaten as.: 1 Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of. Meat is mainly composed of water,, and. It is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways.

Unprocessed meat will within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by and. Meat is important in economy and culture, even though its mass production and consumption has been determined to pose risks for human health and the environment. Many religions have rules about which meat may or may not be eaten, and people abstain from eating meat because of concerns about the or about the effects of meat production or consumption. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Terminology The word meat comes from the word mete, which referred to food in general. The term is related to mad in, mat in and, and matur in and, which also mean 'food'. The word mete also exists in (and to a lesser extent, modern ) to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets (sweets) and dierfied (animal feed). Most often, meat refers to and associated and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as.: 1 Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of species (pigs, cattle, lambs, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of, other,,, or other animals.

See also: evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans.: 2 Early depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as and.: 2 The of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the (c. 10,000 BCE),: 2 allowed the systematic production of meat and the of animals with a view to improving meat production.: 2 The animals which are now the principal sources of meat were domesticated in conjunction with the development of early civilizations. A typical shoulder cut of •, originating from western Asia, were domesticated with the help of dogs prior to the establishment of settled, likely as early as the 8th millennium BCE.: 3 Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient and by 3500–3000 BCE.: 3 Today, more than 200 exist. • were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BCE,: 5 and several breeds were established by 2500 BCE.: 6 Modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups (European cattle) and (zebu), both descended from the now-extinct.: 5 The breeding of, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes, began in the middle of the 18th century.: 7. A bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.

•, which are descended from, are known to have existed about 2500 BCE in modern-day Hungary and in; earlier pottery from and Egypt depicts wild pigs.: 8 sausages and were of great commercial importance in times.: 8 Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for specific meat products.: 9 Other animals are or have been raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on factors such as tradition and the availability of the animals.

The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, both between countries and within a given country. • are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and, among other countries.

Horses and other large such as were hunted during the late in western Europe. • are consumed in, and. Dogs are also occasionally eaten in the regions. Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various part of the world, such as, Japan, and.

• are consumed in Southern China, and sometimes also in. • are raised for their flesh in the. • and are hunted, partly for their flesh, in Japan,,, Canada, the,,, and by two small communities in. Modern agriculture employs a number of techniques, such as, to speed by breeding animals to rapidly acquire the qualities desired by meat producers.: 10 For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of.: 10 Methods of aimed at improving the meat production qualities of animals are now also becoming available.: 14. Fresh meat in a in North America Even though it is a very old industry, meat production continues to be shaped strongly by the evolving demands of customers. Further information: Growth and development of meat animals has identified several factors bearing on the growth and development of meat in animals. Genetics Trait Heritability Reproductive efficiency 2–10% Meat quality 15–30% Growth 20–40% Muscle/fat ratio 40–60% Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the adjacent table) and can thus be selected for.

Blade steaks are an example of 'red' meat Meat can be broadly classified as 'red' or 'white' depending on the concentration of in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest,: 93 while contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.: 93 Generally, the meat of adult mammals such as,,, and is considered red, while and breast meat is considered white. Nutritional information Typical nutritional content of 110 grams (4 oz or.25 lb) of meat Source fish. 110–140 20–25 g 0 g 1–5 g chicken breast 160 28 g 0 g 7 g lamb 250 30 g 0 g 14 g steak (beef top round) 210 36 g 0 g 7 g steak (beef T-bone) 450 25 g 0 g 35 g All tissue is very high in protein, containing all of the, and in most cases is a good source of,,,,,,, and. Several forms of meat are also high in.

Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. While taste quality may vary between meats, the proteins, vitamins, and minerals available from meats are generally consistent.

The fat content of meat can vary widely depending on the and of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, including what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as are typically leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose such as. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for meat with less fat. The fatty deposits that exist with the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked and improve the flavor through chemical changes initiated through heat that allow the protein and fat molecules to interact. The fat, when cooked with meat, also makes the meat seem juicier. However, the nutritional contribution of the fat is mainly calories as opposed to protein. As fat content rises, the meat's contribution to nutrition declines.

In addition, there is associated with fat surrounding the meat. The cholesterol is a lipid associated with the kind of saturated fat found in meat. The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with, though not definitively the cause of, significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.

The table in this section compares the nutritional content of several types of meat. While each kind of meat has about the same content of protein and carbohydrates, there is a very wide range of fat content. See also: Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it.

These procedures are called and, respectively. There is ongoing research into producing, that is, outside of animals. Transport Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route.: 129 Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.: 129 In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and, and their fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.: 130 Consequently, and also due to campaigning by groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration and other circumstances of livestock transports.

Slaughter Animals are usually slaughtered by being first and then (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through the animals with, shooting them with a or a, or shocking them with electric current.: 134ff In most forms of, stunning is not allowed. In the meat products sector of the, France. Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.: 141 During the first day after death, continues until the accumulation of causes the to reach about 5.5.

The remaining, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked.: 87 sets in a few hours after death as is used up, causing and to combine into rigid and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity,: 90 causing it to lose water ('weep').: 146 In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking: 144 – hence again the need to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal. Over time, the muscle proteins in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and of,: 142 and rigor mortis resolves.

Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor.: 142 As the muscle pigment denatures, its iron, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.: 146 Ongoing also contributes to conditioning., a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.: 155 Additives. The word ' is derived from saussiche, from the word salsus meaning 'salted'. When meat is industrially processed in preparation of consumption, it may be enriched with to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its. Meat additives include the following: • is the most frequently used additive in meat processing. It imparts flavor but also inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps finely processed products, such as sausages. Ready-to-eat meat products normally contain about 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt. Salt water or similar substances may also be injected into meat to improve the taste and increase the weight, in a process called.

• is used in to stabilize the meat's color and flavor, and inhibits the growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as. The use of nitrite's precursor is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage,.

• used in meat processing are normally alkaline such as. They are used to increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, but also limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth. • or its equivalent (vitamin C) is used to stabilize the color of cured meat. • such as or impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the. • impart or modify flavor. They include or extracted from them,, vegetables and.

• such as impart or strengthen a particular flavor. • break down to make the meat more palatable for consumption. They include, acids, salt and phosphate. • Dedicated include, and,, acidified or,, activated, or, or such as.

• include a wide range of chemicals that limit, which creates an undesirable 'off flavor', in precooked meat products. •, most often lactic or citric acid, can impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein and moisture release in dried meat.

They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard or prosciutto. Misidentification With the rise of complex, including, in developed economies, the distance between the farmer or fisherman and customer has grown, increasing the possibility for intentional and unintentional misidentification of meat at various points in the supply chain. In 2013, reports emerged across Europe that products labelled as containing beef.

In February 2013 a study was published showing that about one-third of raw fish are misidentified across the United States. Imitation meat Various forms of have been created for people who wish not to eat meat but still want to taste its flavor and texture. Meat imitates are typically some form of processed (, ), but they can also be based on or even fungi (). Environmental impact.

Main article: Various environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems. The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is by far the biggest cause of land use, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface. It is a significant driver of, as it causes, ocean, land degradation, pollution, and.

The occurrence, nature and significance of environmental effects varies among livestock production systems. Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others. Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management. Climate change Meat production is responsible for 14.5% and possibly up to 51% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. However, greenhouse gas emission depends on the economy and country: animal products (meat, fish, and dairy) account for 22%, 65%, and 70% of emissions in the diets of lower-middle–, upper-middle–, and high-income nations, respectively.

Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups and driven by meat consumption. According to a report produced by 's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented. Biodiversity loss Meat consumption is considered one of the primary contributors of the. A 2017 study by the found that 60% of global is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals for human consumption puts an enormous strain on natural resources resulting in a wide-scale loss of lands and species. In November of 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a calling for, among other things, drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of meat and 'dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods'.

Environmental benefits Meat-producing livestock can provide environmental benefits through waste reduction, e.g. Conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops. Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers. Spoilage and preservation. Main articles: and The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent of meat by and, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements.

Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate, and procedures are applied. Without the application of and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as. Methods of preparation. A spit at a street fair in New York City's. Fresh meat can be cooked for immediate consumption, or be processed, that is, treated for longer-term and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused structural coloration and of the light. A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is, which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form when heated.

Meat is prepared in many ways, as, in,, or as like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as or croquettes), loaves, or, or used in loose form (as in 'sloppy joe' or ). Pork ribs being smoked Some meat is cured by, which is the process of,, or by exposing it to the from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often. In, is the traditional smoking wood, but is more often used now, and to a lesser extent. In,,, oak,, alder,, and fruit-tree woods are commonly used for smoking. Meat can also be cured by, preserving in or (see and other methods).

Other kinds of meat are and, or simply boiled,,. Meat is generally eaten cooked, but many recipes call for raw beef, veal or fish ().

Is a meat dish made from finely chopped or minced. Meat is often spiced or seasoned, particularly with meat products such as sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation (e.g., a beef rib). Meat is a typical base for making. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include,, and other sausages, and, such as,,,, and.

Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as and ) and. See also: A study of 400,000 subjects conducted by the and published in 2013 showed 'a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer.' A 1999 combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats.

A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of increased by 90%. During the same period of time, the price of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. In 1995 and 1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods because they eat too much protein.

Various toxic compounds can contaminate meat, including,, residues, and. Often, these compounds are not very dangerous themselves but can be metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products, so any actual toxicological effects may depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.

Contamination Meat and meat products may contain substances such as, (PCBs), and cooked meat may contain, that are toxic to the consumer, although any chemical's toxicity is dependent on the dose and timing of exposure. Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Cancer Carcinogenesis is the main long-term toxic response of consuming meat and meat byproducts. Health concerns have been raised about the consumption of meat increasing the risk of cancer. In particular, red meat and processed meat were found to be associated with higher risk of cancers of the, esophagus, liver, and, among others — although also a reduced risk for some minor type of cancers. The (IARC) is the specialized cancer agency of the (WHO).

IARC classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, ' carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer.' IARC also classified red meat as ' probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect.' Another study found an increase risk of pancreatic cancer for red meat and pork.

That study noted that, 'findings suggest that intakes of red meat and processed meat are positively associated with pancreatic cancer risk and thus are potential target factors for disease prevention. [.] Future analyses of meat and pancreatic cancer risk should focus on meat preparation methods and related carcinogens.' That study also suggests that fat and saturated fat are not likely contributors to pancreatic cancer.

Animal fat, particularly from ruminants, tends to have a higher percentage of vs. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat when compared to vegetable fats, with the exception of some tropical plant fats; consumption of which has been correlated with various health problems.

The saturated fat found in meat has been associated with significantly raised risks of, although evidence suggests that risks of prostate cancer are unrelated to animal fat consumption. Other research does not support significant links between meat consumption and various cancers.

Found that 'There were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer or all other causes combined.' Truswell reviewed numerous studies, concluding that the relationship of colorectal cancer with meat consumption appeared weaker than the 'probable' status it had been given by the World Cancer Research Foundation in 1997. A study by Chao et al.

(2005) found an apparent association of colorectal cancer with red meat consumption after adjustment for age and energy intake. However, after further adjustment for body mass index, cigarette smoking and other covariates, no association with red meat consumption was found. Alex' ander conducted a meta-analysis which found no association of colorectal cancer with consumption of animal fat or protein.

Gps Usb Dongle Gr 110 Driver. Based on European data (EPIC-Oxford study), Key et al. Found that incidence of colorectal cancer was somewhat lower among meat eaters than among vegetarians. However, they concluded that 'the study is not large enough to exclude small or moderate differences for specific causes of death, and more research on this topic is required'.

A study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) found that association between esophageal cancer risk and total and processed meat intake was not statistically significant. Another recent study of EPIC found a significant correlation between eating ' processed meat and cardiovascular diseases.also to cancer.

In this population, reduction of processed meat consumption to less than 20 g/day would prevent more than 3% of all deaths.' [ ] Heart disease The correlation of consumption to increased risk of is controversial. Some studies fail to find a link between red meat consumption and heart disease (although the same study found statistically significant correlation between the consumption of processed meat and coronary heart disease), while another study, a survey, conducted in 1960, of 25,153 California Seventh-Day Adventists, found that the risk of heart disease is three times greater for 45- to 64-year-old men who eat meat daily, versus those who did not eat meat. A major Harvard University study in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that eating 50 g (less than 2oz) of processed meat per day increases risk of coronary heart disease by 42%, and diabetes by 19%. Equivalent levels of fat, including saturated fats, in unprocessed meat (even when eating twice as much per day) did not show any deleterious effects, leading the researchers to suggest that 'differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats.' Obesity The EPIC-PANACEA study, published in 2010 in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition closely tracked 373,803 people over a period of 8 years across 10 countries.

It concluded that meat consumption is positively associated with weight gain in men and women. The countered by stating that meat consumption may not be associated with fat gain.

In response, the authors of the original study controlled for just abdominal fat across a sample of 91,214 people and found that even when controlling for calories and lifestyle factors, meat consumption is linked with obesity. Additional studies and reviews have confirmed the finding that greater meat consumption is positively linked with greater weight gain even when controlling for calories, and lifestyle factors. Bacterial contamination A 2011 study by the showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and in U.S.

Grocery stores were contaminated with, with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. Cooking Meat can transmit certain, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility. Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the states that cooking meat below 212 (100 ) creates 'negligible amounts' of HCAs. Also, meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%., present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer.

Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic. Meat in society Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions. Many people, however, choose not to eat meat (this is referred to as ) or any food made from animals (). The reasons for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious.

Ethics of eating meat. Main article: Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the used in meat production.

Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include,, or an aversion to inflicting or harm on other. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals (such as cows, pigs, cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits) due to cultural or religious traditions. Some people eat only the flesh of animals that they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the flesh of animals raised in or else abstain from particular products, such as and.

Some people also abstain from milk and its derivatives for ethical reasons, because the production of veal is a byproduct of the. The ethical issues with intensive agriculture have to do with the concentration of animals, animal waste, and the potential for dead animals in a small space. [ ] Some techniques of intensive agriculture may be cruel to animals: foie gras is a made from the of or that have been corn to fatten the organ; veal is criticised because the veal calves may be highly restricted in movement, have unsuitable flooring, spend their entire lives indoors, experience prolonged deprivation (sensory, social, and exploratory), and be more susceptible to high amounts of stress and disease. Religious traditions.

Main article: The religion of has always opposed eating meat, and there are also and that condemn the eating of meat. Dietary rules ( ) allow certain ( ) meat and forbid other ( ). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of (such as, including and, and most ), and mixtures of meat and milk. Similar rules apply in: The explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, the meat of swine (porcine animals, pigs), and animals dedicated to other than Allah (either undedicated or dedicated to ) which are as opposed to. Forbids meat of slowly slaughtered animals (') and prescribes killing animals with a single strike ('), but some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat.